Catalytic conversion of biomass to fuels and chemicals has attracted considerable attention in addressing the global challenges associated with energy and environmental crisis. Catalyst plays a crucial role in the biomass conversion process, and the characteristic of catalysts are continuously improved to meet the requirements. Niobium (Nb) based catalysts, generally in the form of niobic acid, niobium pentoxide (Nb2O5), niobium phosphate (NbOPO4), and their supporting materials, have been widely employed for bioenergy production. This review summarizes the special characteristics of Nb-based catalysts, and the application of these catalysts on the catalytic conversion of biomass, including (I) properties of Nb-based catalysts, (II) catalytic hydrolysis/dehydration for platform chemicals, (III) catalytic pyrolysis for hydrocarbons, (IV) catalytic esterification, (V) catalytic hydrogenation, and (VI) catalytic oxidation. The Nb compounds become an attractive candidate in the bioenergy field, and this review serves as a basis for future research on biomass catalytic conversion over Nbbased catalysts.