화학공학소재연구정보센터
Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol.10, No.7, 1182-1216, December, 2004
Kinetics and Mechanisms of Emulsion Polymerization
E-mail:
The current understanding of the kinetics and mechanisms of batch and continuous emulsion homoand co-polymerizations is summarized from the viewpoints of particle formation and growth. There are numerous factors that affect these processes; among them, studies on the radical transfer and the monomer partitioning between phases, which are key factors for particle formation and growth, are reviewed and discussed. Attention is also focused on the effects of initiator type, additives and impurities in the recipe ingredients, and agitation, each of which sometimes exert crucial influences on the processes of particle formation and growth.
  1. Gilbert RG, Emulsion Polymerization: A Mechanistic Approach, Academic Press, London (1995)
  2. Lovell PA, El-Aasser MS, Eds., Emulsion Polymerization and Emulsion Polymers, Wiley, New York (1997)
  3. Fitch RM, Fitch Polymer Colloids: A Comprehensive Introduction, Academic Press, London (1997)
  4. Smith WV, Ewart RH, J. Chem. Phys., 16, 592 (1948)
  5. Harkins WD, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 69, 1428 (1947)
  6. Yeliseeva VI, in Emulsion Polymerization, I Piirma Ed., Academic, New York, pp. 247-288 (1982)
  7. Gardon JL, J. Polym. Sci. Part A-1, 6, 623 (1968) 
  8. Ugelstad J, Hansen FK, Rubber Chem. Technol., 49, 536 (1976)
  9. Penboss IA, Napper DH, Gilbert RG, J. Chem. Soc.-Faraday Trans., 79, 1257 (1983)
  10. Maxwell IA, Morrison BR, Napper DH, Gilbert RG, Macromolecules, 24, 1629 (1991)
  11. Dearbina LL, Barandiaran MJ, Gugliotta LM, Asua JM, Polymer, 37(26), 5907 (1996)
  12. Harada M, Nomura M, Kojima H, Eguchi W, Nagata S, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 16, 811 (1972)
  13. Hansen FK, Ugelstad J, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 16, 1953 (1978)
  14. Hansen FK, in Polymer Latex, S. Daniels, E. D. Sudol, M. S. El-Aasser Eds., pp. 12-27, ACS. Symp. Ser. 492, Am. Chem. Soc., Washington DC (1992)
  15. Hansen FK, Chem. Eng. Sci., 48, 437 (1993)
  16. Unzueta E, Forcada J, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 66(3), 445 (1997)
  17. Sayer C, Palma M, Giudici R, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 41(7), 1733 (2002)
  18. Nomura M, Harada M, Eguchi W, Nagata S, ACS. Symp. Ser., in Emulsion Polymerization, I. Piirma, J. L. Gardon Eds., pp. 102-121, ACS. Symp. Ser., 24 (1976)
  19. Araujo PHH, delaCal JC, Asua JM, Pinto JC, Macromol. Theory Simul., 10, 769 (2001)
  20. Herrera-Ordonez J, Olayo R, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 38(12), 2201 (2000)
  21. Dong Y, Sundberg DC, Macromolecules, 35(21), 8185 (2002)
  22. Hawkett BS, Napper DH, Gilbert RG, J. Chem. Soc.-Faraday Trans., 76, 1323 (1980)
  23. Colombie D, Sudol ED, El-Aasser MS, Macromolecules, 33(12), 4347 (2000)
  24. Marestin C, Guyot A, Claverie J, Macromolecules, 31(5), 1686 (1998)
  25. Schoonbrood HA, German AL, Gilbert RG, Macromolecules, 28(1), 34 (1995)
  26. Liotta V, Georgakis C, Sudol ED, Elaasser MS, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 36(8), 3252 (1997)
  27. Tauer K, Deckwer R, Acta Polym., 49, 411 (1998)
  28. Adams ME, Trau M, Gilbert RG, Napper DH, Sangster DF, Aust. J. Chem., 41, 1799 (1988)
  29. Penboss IA, Gilbert RG, Napper DH, J. Chem. Soc.-Faraday Trans., 82, 2247 (1986)
  30. Kusters JMH, Napper DH, Gilbert RG, Macromolecules, 25, 7043 (1992)
  31. Wang XR, Boya B, Sudol ED, El-Aasser MS, Macromolecules, 34(26), 8907 (2001)
  32. Coen EM, Lyons RA, Gilbert RG, Macromolecules, 29(15), 5128 (1996)
  33. Cheong IW, Kim JH, Colloid Polym. Sci., 275, 736 (1997)
  34. Vorwerg L, Gilbert RG, Macromolecules, 33(18), 6693 (2000)
  35. Leemans L, Jerome R, Teyssie P, Macromolecules, 31(17), 5565 (1998)
  36. Ohtsuka Y, Kawaguchi H, Sugi Y, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 26, 1637 (1981)
  37. Nomura M, Ichikawa H, Fujita K, Okaya T, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 35(13), 2689 (1997)
  38. Nomura M, Suzuki K, Progr. Colloid Polym. Sci., 124, 7 (2003)
  39. Ugelstad J, Mork PC, Dahl P, Rangnes P, J. Polym. Sci. Part C, 27, 49 (1969)
  40. Harada M, Nomura M, Eguchi W, Nagata S, J. Chem. Eng. Jpn., 4, 54 (1971)
  41. Nomura M, in Emulsion Polymerization, I. Piirma Eed. Academic. New York, p. 191 (1982)
  42. Nomura M, Harada M, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 26, 17 (1981)
  43. Nomura M, Yamamoto K, Horie I, Fujita K, Harada M, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 27, 2483 (1982)
  44. Casey BS, Morrison BR, Maxwell IA, Gilbert RG, Napper DH, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 32(4), 605 (1994)
  45. Nomura M, Kubo M, Fujita K, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 28, 2767 (1983)
  46. Adams M, Napper DH, Gilbert RG, Sangster DF, J. Chem. Soc.-Faraday Trans., 82, 1979 (1986)
  47. Asua JM, Sudol ED, El-Aasser MS, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 27, 3903 (1989)
  48. Barandiaran MJ, Asua JM, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 34(2), 309 (1996)
  49. Asua JM, Polymer, 39(10), 2061 (1998)
  50. Morrison BR, Casey BS, Lacik I, Leslie GL, Sangster DF, Gilbert RG, Napper DH, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 32(4), 631 (1994)
  51. Kim JU, Lee HH, Polymer, 37(10), 1941 (1996)
  52. Fang SJ, Wang K, Pan ZR, Polymer, 44(5), 1385 (2003)
  53. Dearbina LL, Barandiaran MJ, Gugliotta LM, Asua JM, Polymer, 38(1), 143 (1997)
  54. Forcada J, Asua JM, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 28, 987 (1990)
  55. Barudio I, Guillot J, Fevotte G, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 36(1), 157 (1998)
  56. Saldivar E, Dafniotis P, Ray WH, J. Macromol. Sci.-Rev. Macromol. Chem. Phys., C38, 207 (1998)
  57. Saldivar E, Araujo O, Giudici R, Lopez-Barron C, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 79(13), 2380 (2001)
  58. Araujo O, Giudici R, Saldivar E, Ray WH, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 79(13), 2360 (2001)
  59. Vega JR, Gugliotta LM, Bielsa RO, Brandolini MC, Meira GR, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 36(4), 1238 (1997)
  60. GUGLIOTTA LM, BRANDOLINI MC, VEGA JR, ITURRALDE EO, AZUM JL, MEIRA GR, Polym. React. Eng., 3(3), 201 (1995)
  61. Barandiaran MJ, LopezdeArbina L, delaCal JC, Gugliotta LM, Asua JM, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 55, 231 (1995)
  62. Nomura M, Harada M, Nakagawara K, Eguchi W, Nagata S, J. Chem. Eng. Jpn., 4, 160 (1971)
  63. Hansen FK, Ugelstad J, Makromol. Chem., 180, 2423 (1979) 
  64. Fitch RM, in Emulsion polymers and Emulsion Polymerization, D. R. Bassett and A. E. Hamielec Eds., pp. 1-29, ACS Symp. Ser. 165, Am. Chem. Soc., Washington DC (1981)
  65. Hansen FK, Ugelstad J, in Emulsion Polymerization, I. Piirma Ed., pp. 51-92, Academic, New York (1982)
  66. Tauer K, Kuhn I, Macromolecules, 28(7), 2236 (1995)
  67. Kuhn I, Tauer K, Macromolecules, 28(24), 8122 (1995)
  68. Lichti G, Gilbert RG, Napper DH, J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Chem. Ed., 21, 269 (1983) 
  69. Feeney PJ, Napper DH, Gilbert RG, Macromolecules, 17, 2520 (1984)
  70. Richards JR, Congalidis, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 37, 2727 (1989)
  71. Stterlin N, in Polymer Colloid II, R. M Fitch Ed., pp.583-597, Plenum, New York (1980)
  72. NOMURA M, FUJITA K, Polym. React. Eng., 2(4), 317 (1994)
  73. Nomura M, Kodani T, Ojima J, Kihara Y, Fujita K, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 36(11), 1919 (1998)
  74. Morrison BR, Maxwell IA, Gilbert RG, Napper DH, in Polymer Latexes, E. S. Daniels, E. D. Sudol and M. S. El-Aasser Eds., pp. 28-44, ACS Symp. Ser. 492. Am. Chem. Soc., Washington DC (1992)
  75. Sajjadi S, Brooks BW, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 37(21), 3957 (1999)
  76. Nomura M, Sakai H, Kihara Y, Fujita K, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 40(9), 1275 (2002)
  77. Yuan XY, Dimonie VL, Sudol ED, Roberts JE, El-Aasser MS, Macromolecules, 35(22), 8356 (2002)
  78. Herrera-Ordonez J, Olayo R, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 38(12), 2219 (2000)
  79. Herrera-Ordonez J, Olayo R, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 39(14), 2547 (2001)
  80. Delarosa LV, Sudol ED, Elaasser MS, Klein A, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 34(3), 461 (1996)
  81. De la Rosa LV, Sudol ED, El-Aasser MS, Klein A, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 37(22), 4066 (1999)
  82. De la Rosa LV, Sudol ED, El-Aasser MS, Klein A, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 37(22), 4073 (1999)
  83. Nomura M, Satpathy US, Kouno Y, Fujita K, J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Lett., 26, 385 (1988)
  84. Morrison BR, Gilbert GG, Makromol. Chem. Macromol. Symp., 35-36, 13 (1990)
  85. Chern CS, Lin CH, Polymer, 40, 139 (1998)
  86. Chern CS, Lin CH, Polymer, 41(12), 4473 (2000)
  87. Wang ZY, Paine AJ, Rudin A, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 33(10), 1597 (1995)
  88. Morrison BR, Gilbert GG, Macromol. Symp., 92, 13 (1995)
  89. Coen EM, Gilbert RG, Morrison BR, Leube H, Peach S, Polymer, 39(26), 7099 (1998)
  90. Prescott SW< Fellows CM, Gilbert RG, Macromol. Theory Simul., 11, 163 (2002)
  91. Butucea V, Sarbu A, Georgescu C, Angew. Makromol. Chem., 255, 37 (1998)
  92. Cheong IW, Kim JH, Macromol. Theory Simul., 7, 49 (1998)
  93. Sajjadi S, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 38(19), 3612 (2000)
  94. Sajjadi S, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 39(22), 3940 (2001)
  95. Sajjadi S, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 40(10), 1652 (2002)
  96. Nomurqa M, Fujita K, Polym. Int., 30, 483 (1993)
  97. Ozdeger E, Sudol ED, Elaasser MS, Klein A, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 35(17), 3813 (1997)
  98. Ozdeger E, Sudol ED, Elaasser MS, Klein A, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 35(17), 3827 (1997)
  99. Ozdeger E, Sudol ED, Elaasser MS, Klein A, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 35(17), 3837 (1997)
  100. Lin SY, Capek I, Hsu TJ, Chern CS, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 37(23), 4422 (1999)
  101. Unzueta E, Forcada J, Polymer, 36(22), 4301 (1995)
  102. Chen LJ, Lin SY, Chern CS, Wu SC, Colloids Surf. A: Physicochem. Eng. Asp., 122, 161 (1997)
  103. Lin SY, Capek I, Hsu TJ, Chern CS, Polym. J., 32, 932 (2000)
  104. Colombie D, Sudol ED, El-Aasser MS, Macromolecules, 33(20), 7283 (2000)
  105. Asua JM, Schoonbrood HAS, Acta Polym., 49, 671 (1998)
  106. Amalvy JI, Unzue MJ, Schoonbrood HAS, Asua JM, Macromolecules, 31(17), 5631 (1998)
  107. Wang X, Sudol ED, El-Aasser MS, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 39(18), 3093 (2001)
  108. Wang X, Sudol ED, El-Aasser MS, Macromolecules, 34(22), 7715 (2001)
  109. Cochin D, Laschewsky A, Nallet F, Macromolecules, 30(8), 2278 (1997)
  110. Ayoub MMH, Nasr HF, Rozik NN, J. Macromol. Sci.-Pure Appl. Chem., A35, 1415 (1998)
  111. Ayoub MMH, J. Elastomer Plast., 30, 207 (1998)
  112. Wang X, Sudol ED, El-Aasser MS, Langmuir, 17(22), 6865 (2001)
  113. Kato S, Nomura M, Colloids Surf. A: Physicochem. Eng. Asp., 153, 127 (1999)
  114. Cheong IW, Nomura M, Kim JH, Macromol. Chem. Phys., 202, 2454 (2001)
  115. Piirma I, Polymer Surfactants: Surfactant Science Series No. 42. Marcel Dekker, New York (1993)
  116. Capek I, Adv. Colloid Interface Sci., 99, 77 (2002)
  117. Toole JTO, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 9, 1291 (1965)
  118. Ugelstad J, Mrk PC, Aasen JO, J. Polym. Sci. Part A-1, 5, 2281 (1967) 
  119. Stockmayer WH, J. Polym. Sci., 24, 314 (1957) 
  120. Nomura M, Fujita K, Makromol. Chem. Suppl., 10-11, 25 (1985)
  121. Nomura M, Koubunshi, 36, 680 (1987)
  122. Sakai H, Kihara Y, Fujita K, Kodani T, Nomura M, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 39(7), 1005 (2001)
  123. Asua JM, Adam ME, Sudol ED, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 39, 1183 (1990)
  124. Mendoza J, De la Cal JC, Asua JM, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 38(24), 4490 (2000)
  125. Kiparissides C, Achilias DS, Frantzikinakis CE, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 41(13), 3097 (2002)
  126. delaCal JC, Asua JM, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 139, 585 (2001)
  127. Gilmore CM, Poehlein GW, Schork FJ, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 48, 1449 (1993)
  128. Gilmore CM, Poehlein GW, Schork FJ, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 48, 1461 (1993)
  129. Budhlall BM, Sudol ED, Dimonie VL, Klein A, El-Aasser MS, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 39(20), 3633 (2001)
  130. Shaffie KA, Moustafa AB, Mohamed ES, Badran AS, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 35(15), 3141 (1997)
  131. Debruyn H, Gilbert RG, Ballard MJ, Macromolecules, 29(27), 8666 (1996)
  132. Chern CS, Poehlein GW, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 33, 2117 (1987)
  133. De Bruyn H, Miller CM, Bassett DR, Gilbert RG, Macromolecules, 35(22), 8371 (2002)
  134. Ballard MJ, Napper DH, Gilbert RG, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 19, 939 (1981)
  135. Nomura M, Kubo M, Fujita K, Mem. Fac. Eng. Fukui Univ., 29(2), 167 (1981)
  136. Storti G, Carra S, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 37, 2443 (1989)
  137. Tobita H, Hamielec AE, Macromolecules, 22, 3098 (1989)
  138. Nomura M, Horie I, Kubo M, Fujita K, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 37, 1029 (1989)
  139. Chen SA, Wu KW, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 26, 1487 (1988)
  140. Giannetti E, Macromolecules, 22, 2094 (1989)
  141. Saldivar E, Ray WH, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 36(4), 1322 (1997)
  142. Dube MA, Penlidis A, Mutha RK, Cluett WR, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 35(12), 4434 (1996)
  143. Martinet F, Guillot J, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 72(12), 1627 (1999)
  144. Vicente M, Leiza JR, Asua JM, AIChE J., 47(7), 1594 (2001)
  145. Vega JR, Gugliotta LM, Meira GR, Polym. React. Eng., 10, 59 (2002)
  146. Shoaf GL, Poehlein GW, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 42, 1213 (1991)
  147. Yang BZ, Chen LW, Chiu WY, Polym. J., 29, 744 (1997)
  148. Yang BZ, Chen LW, Chiu WY, Polym. J., 29, 737 (1997)
  149. Slawinski M, Schellekens MAJ, Meuldijk J, Van Herk AM, German AL, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 76(7), 1186 (2000)
  150. Wang PH, Pan CY, Colloid Polym. Sci., 279, 98 (2001)
  151. Dossantos AM, Mckenna TF, Guillot J, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 65(12), 2343 (1997)
  152. Yan C, Cheng SY, Feng LX, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 37(14), 2649 (1999)
  153. Nomura M, Kojima H, Harada M, Eguchi W, Nagata S, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 15, 675 (1971)
  154. Morton M, Kaizerman S, Altier MW, J. Colloid Sci., 9, 300 (1954) 
  155. Gardon JL, J. Polym. Sci. Part A-1, 6, I, 2859 (1968)
  156. Maxwell IA, Kurja J, Doremaele GHV, German AL, Morrison BR, Makromol. Chem., 193, 2049 (1992) 
  157. Antonietti M, Kaspar H, Tauer K, Langmuir, 12(26), 6211 (1996)
  158. Vanzo E, Marchessault RH, Stannett V, J. Colloid Sci., 20, 62 (1965) 
  159. Ugelstad J, Mork PC, Mfutakamba HR, Soleimany E, Nordhuus I, Schmid R, Berge A, Ellingsen T, Aune O, Nustad K, in Science and Technology of Polymer Colloids Vol. I, NATO ASI Ser E: No. 67, G. W. Pohelein, R. H. Ottewill and J. W. Goodwin Eds., pp.51-99, Martinus Nijhoff, Boston (1983)
  160. Maxwell IA, Kurja J, vanDoremaele GHJ, German AL, Makromol. Chem., 193, 2065 (1992) 
  161. Schoonbrood HAS, German AL, Macromol. Rapid Commun., 15, 259 (1994)
  162. Nol LFJ, Maxwell IA, German AL, Macromolecules, 26, 2911 (1993)
  163. Schoonbrood HA, Vandenboom MA, German AL, Hutovic J, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 32(12), 2311 (1994)
  164. Noel LF, Vanzon JM, Maxwell IA, German AL, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 32(6), 1009 (1994)
  165. Gugliotta LM, Arzamendi G, Asua JM, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 55(7), 1017 (1995)
  166. Karlsson O, Wesslen B, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 70(10), 2041 (1998)
  167. Mathey P, Guillot J, Polymer, 32, 934 (1991)
  168. Nomura M, Liu X, Ishitani K, Fujita K, J. Polym. Sci. B: Polym. Phys., 32(15), 2491 (1994)
  169. Liu X, Nomura M, Fujita K, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 64(5), 931 (1997)
  170. Liu X, Nomura M, Liu YH, Ishitani K, Fujita K, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 36(4), 1218 (1997)
  171. Aerdts AM, Boei MWA, German AL, Polymer, 34, 574 (1993)
  172. Breitenbach VJW, Edelhauser H, Macromol. Chem., 44, 196 (1961) 
  173. vanderHoff BME, J. Polym. Sci., 48, 175 (1960) 
  174. Al-Shahib WAG, Dunn AS, Polymer, 21, 429 (1980)
  175. Barton J, Karpatyova A, Makromol. Chem., 188, 693 (1987) 
  176. Il'menev PY, Litvinenko GI, Kaminskii VA, Gritskova IA, Polym. Sci. USSR, 30, 826 (1988) 
  177. Nomura M, Fujita K, Makromol. Chem. Rapid. Commun., 10, 581 (1989) 
  178. Nomura M, Yamada A, Fujita S, Sugimoto A, Ikoma J, Fujita K, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 29, 987 (1991)
  179. Nomura M, Ikoma J, Fujita K, in Polymer Latexes, E. S. Daniels, E. D. Sudol and M. S. El-Aasser Eds., pp. 55-71, ACS Symp. Ser. 492. Am. Chem. Soc., Washingtno DC (1992)
  180. Nomura M, Fujita K, DECHEMA Monogr., 127, 359 (1992)
  181. Nomura M, Ikoma J, Fujita K, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 31, 2103 (1993)
  182. Asua JM, Rodriguez VS, Sudol ED, El-Aasser MS, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 27, 3569 (1989)
  183. Alduncin JA, Forcada J, Barandiaran MJ, Asua JM, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 29, 1265 (1991)
  184. Nomura M, Suzuki K, To be Published in Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. April (2005)
  185. Mrk PC, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 33, 2305 (1995)
  186. Mork PC, Ugelstad J, Aasen JO, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 33(11), 1759 (1995)
  187. Mork PC, Makame Y, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 35(12), 2347 (1997)
  188. Suzuki K, Goto A, Takayama M, Muramatsu A, Nomura M, Macromol. Symp., 155, 99 (2000)
  189. Nomura M, Suzuki K, Macromol. Chem. Phys., 198, 3025 (1997)
  190. Capek I, Adv. Colloid Interface Sci., 91, 295 (2001)
  191. Bigg S, Grieser F, Macromolecules, 28(14), 4877 (1995)
  192. Ooi SK, Biggs S, Ultrason. Sonochem., 7, 125 (2000)
  193. Cooper G, Grieser F, Biggs S, J. Colloid Interface Sci., 184(1), 52 (1996)
  194. Bradley M, Grieser F, J. Colloid Interface Sci., 251(1), 78 (2002)
  195. Chou HCJ, Stoffer JO, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 72(6), 797 (1999)
  196. Chou HCJ, Stoffer JO, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 72(6), 827 (1999)
  197. Liao YQ, Wang Q, Xia HS, Xu X, Baxter SM, Slone RV, Wu SG, Swift G, Westmoreland DG, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 39(19), 3356 (2001)
  198. Xia H, Wang Q, Liao Y, Xu X, Baxter SM, Slone RV, Wu S, Swift G, Westmoreland DG, Ultrason. Sonochem., 9, 151 (2002)
  199. de Arbina LL, Gugliotta LM, Barandiaran MJ, Asua JM, Polymer, 39(17), 4047 (1998)
  200. Nomura M, Harada M, Eguchi W, Nagata S, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 16, 835 (1972)
  201. Penlidis A, Macgegor JF, Hamielec AE, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 35, 2023 (1988)
  202. Cunningham MF, Geramita K, Ma JW, Polymer, 41(14), 5385 (2000)
  203. De Bruyn H, Gilbert RG, Hawkett BS, Polymer, 41(24), 8633 (2000)
  204. Kokthoff IM, Harris WE, J. Polym. Sci., 2, 49 (1947) 
  205. Whang BCY, Lichti G, Gilbert RG, Napper DH, J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Lett., 18, 711 (1980)
  206. Nomura M, Minamino Y, Fujita K, Harada M, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 20, 1261 (1982)
  207. Lichti G, Sangster DF, J. Chem. Soc.-Faraday Trans., 78, 2129 (1982)
  208. Maxwell IA, Morrison BR, Napper DH, Gilbert RG, Makromol. Chem., 193, 303 (1992) 
  209. Weerts PA, vanderLoos JLM, German AL, Makromol. Chem., 192, 2009 (1991) 
  210. Huo BP, Campbell JD, Penlidis A, Macgregor JF, Hamielec AE, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 35, 2009 (1987)
  211. Kemmere MF, Mayer MJJ, Meuldijk J, Drinkenburg AAH, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 71(14), 2419 (1999)
  212. Barton J, Juranicova V, Makromol. Chem. Rapid Commun., 12, 669 (1991) 
  213. Echevarria A, Leiza JR, de la Cal JC, Asua JM, AIChE J., 44(7), 1667 (1998)
  214. Salazar A, Gugliotta LM, Vega JR, Meira GR, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 37(9), 3582 (1998)
  215. Sayer C, Lima EL, Pinto JC, Arzamendi G, Asua JM, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 38(7), 1100 (2000)
  216. Sayer C, Lima EL, Pinto JC, Arzamendi G, Asua JM, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 38(2), 367 (2000)
  217. Plessis C, Arzamendi G, Leiza JR, Alberdi JM, Schoonbrood HAS, Charmot D, Asua JM, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 39(7), 1106 (2001)
  218. Gugliotta LM, Salazar A, Vega JR, Meira GR, Polymer, 42(7), 2719 (2001)
  219. Nomura M, Suzuki H, Tokunaga H, Fujita K, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 51(1), 21 (1994)
  220. Bataille P, Dalpe JF, Dubuc F, Lamoureux L, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 39, 1815 (1990)
  221. Shunmukham SR, Hallenbeck VL, Guile RL, J. Polym. Sci., 6, 691 (1951) 
  222. Schoot CJ, Bakker J, Klaassens KH, J. Polym. Sci., 7, 657 (1951) 
  223. Evans CP, Hay PM, Marker L, Murray RW, Sweeting OJ, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 5, 39 (1961)
  224. Omi S, Shiraishi Y, Sato H, Kubota H, J. Chem. Eng. Jpn., 2, 64 (1969)
  225. Weerts PA, vanderLoos JLM, German AL, Makromol. Chem., 192, 1993 (1991) 
  226. Arai K, Arai M, Iwasaki S, Saito S, J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem., 19, 1203 (1981)
  227. Kim CU, Lee JM, Ihm SK, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 73(5), 777 (1999)
  228. Ozdeger E, Sudol ED, El-Aasser MS, Klein A, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 69(11), 2277 (1998)
  229. Brooks BW, Br. Polym. J., 3, 269 (1971)
  230. Zubitur M, Asua JM, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 80(6), 841 (2001)
  231. Soares JBP, Hamielec AE, in Polymeric Dispersions: Principles and Applications, J. M. Asua Ed., pp.289-304, NATO ASI Ser E: Applied. Sciences Vol. 335, Kluwer Academic, London (1997)
  232. Cunningham MF, Ma JW, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 78, 217 (2000)
  233. Ma JW, Cunningham MF, Macromol. Symp., 150, 85 (2000)
  234. Zubitur M, Mendoza J, delaCal JC, Asua JM, Macromol. Symp., 150, 13 (2000)
  235. Rimmer S, Tattersall P, Polymer, 40(20), 5729 (1999)
  236. Zhang WM, Gao J, Wu C, Macromolecules, 30(20), 6388 (1997)
  237. Leyrer RJ, Machtle W, Macromol. Chem. Phys., 201, 1235 (2000)
  238. Lau W, US Patent 5 521 266, assigned to Rohm and Haas Co, Philadelphia, Pa USA (1994)
  239. Vanderhoff JW, in Emulsion polymer and Emulsion Polymerization, D. R. Bassett and A. E. Hamielec Eds., pp. 199-208, ACS Symp Ser 165, Am. Chem. Soc., Washington DC (1981)
  240. Lowry V, El-Aasser MS, Vanderhoff JW, Klein A, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 29, 3925 (1984)
  241. Matejicek A, Ditl P, Pivonkova A, Kaska J, Formanek L, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 35, 583 (1988)
  242. Hamielec AE, Tobita H, in Ulmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry Vol A21 VCH, p305-428, Veinheim, Germany (1992)
  243. Pohelein G, in Emulsion Polymerization and Emulsion Polymers, P. A. Lovell and M. S. El-Aasser Eds,. pp. 277-292, Wiley, New York (1997)
  244. Poehlein GW, Dougherty DJ, Rubber Chem. Technol., 50, 601 (1977)
  245. Nomura M, in Emulsion polymer and Emulsion Polymerization, D. R. Bassett and A. E. Hamielec Eds., pp. 121-143, ACS Symp. Ser. 165, Am. Chem. Soc. Washington DC (1981)
  246. Nomura M, in Polymer Reaction Engineering, K-H. Reichert and W. Geisler Eds., pp. 41-50, Hthig & Wepf, Basel (1986)
  247. Penlidis A, MacGregor JF, Hamielec AE, Chem. Eng. Sci., 44, 273 (1989)
  248. Gershberg DB, Longfield JE, Symp. Polym. Kinetics and Catalyst Systems, Preprint 10, 45th AlChE Meeting, New York (1961)
  249. Omi S, Ueda T, Kubota H, J. Chem. Eng. Jpn., 2, 193 (1969)
  250. Degraff AW, Poehlein GW, J. Polym. Sci. Part A-2, 9, 1955 (1971) 
  251. Gerrens H, Kuchner K, Br. Polym. J., 2, 18 (1970)
  252. Gerrens H, Kuchner K, Ley G, Chem. Tech., 43, 693 (1971)
  253. Gregor L, Gerrens H, Makromol. Chem., 175, 563 (1974) 
  254. Nomura M, Sasaki S, Xue W, Fujita K, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 86(11), 2748 (2002)
  255. Kiparissides C, MacGregor JF, Hamielec AE, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 23, 401 (1979)
  256. Rawlings JB, Ray WH, Polym. Eng. Sci., 28, 237 (1988)
  257. Rawlings JB, Ray WH, Polym. Eng. Sci., 28, 257 (1988)
  258. Tauer K, Muller I, DECHEMA Monogr., 131, 95 (1995)
  259. Greens RK, Gonzalez RA, Poehlein GW, in Emulsion Polymerization, I. Piirma and J. L. Gardon Eds., pp.341 ACS Symp. Ser. 24, Am. Chem. Soc., Washington DC (1976)
  260. Feldon M, McCann RF, Laundrie RW, India Rubber World, 128, 51 (1953)
  261. Geddes KR, Chem. Ind., 21, 223 (1983)
  262. Geddes KR, Br. Polym. J., 21, 443 (1989)
  263. Rollin AL, Patterson I, Huneault R, Bataille P, Can. J. Chem. Eng., 55, 565 (1977)
  264. Iabbadene A, Bataille P, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 51, 503 (1994)
  265. Lee DY, Kuo JF, Wang JH, Chen CY, Polym. Eng. Sci., 30, 187 (1990)
  266. Lee DY, Wang JH, Kuo JF, Polym. Eng. Sci., 32, 198 (1992)
  267. Abad C, Delacal JC, Asua JM, Polymer, 36(22), 4293 (1995)
  268. Abad C, delaCal JC, Asua JM, Chem. Eng. Sci., 49, 5025 (1994)
  269. Abad C, Delacal JC, Asua JM, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 56(4), 419 (1995)
  270. Abad C, delaCal JC, Asua JM, DECHEMA Monogr., 131, 87 (1995)
  271. Paquet DA, Ray WH, AIChE J., 40(1), 73 (1994)
  272. Mayer MJ, Meuldijk J, Thoenes D, Chem. Eng. Sci., 51(13), 3441 (1996)
  273. Scholtens CA, Meuldijk J, Drinkenburg AAH, Chem. Eng. Sci., 56(3), 955 (2001)
  274. Imamura T, Saito K, Ishikura S, Nomura M, Polym. Int., 30, 203 (1993)
  275. Kataoka K, Ohmura N, Kouzu M, Simamura Y, Okubo M, Chem. Eng. Sci., 50(9), 1409 (1995)
  276. Ohmura N, Kataoka K, Watanabe S, Okubo M, Chem. Eng. Sci., 53(12), 2129 (1998)
  277. Schmidt W, Kossak S, Langenbuch J, Moritz HU, Herrmann C, Kremesktter J, DECHEMA Monogr., 134, 509 (1998)
  278. Wei X, Takahashi H, Sato S, Nomura M, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 80(11), 1931 (2001)
  279. Xue W, Yoshikawa K, Oshima A, Sato S, Nomura M, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 86(11), 2755 (2002)
  280. Mead RN, Poehlein GW, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 27, 2283 (1988)
  281. Mead RN, Poehlein GW, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 28, 51 (1989)
  282. Shoaf GL, Poehlein GW, Polym. -Plast. Technol. Eng., 28, 289 (1989)
  283. Poehlein GW, Macromol. Symp., 92, 179 (1995)
  284. Fang SJ, Xue W, Nomura M, Polym. React. Eng., 11, 815 (2003)