The majority of residents in the rural Middle Hills of Nepal use fuelwood from public and private sources as their primary energy source. This study investigated fuelwood availability in accessed forests, amount of fuelwood collected, preferred tree species for fuelwood, contribution of public and private sources to total fuelwood consumption, and investment in tree planting on agricultural land. Fuelwood availability declined in the decades prior to 1990, but stabilized by 1990. Fuelwood from fifty-three species was collected from forests. Median annual per capita collection was 683 kg and predicted only by family size. Occupational castes ('low castes') did not show different harvesting rates than non-occupational castes and non-caste ethnic groups. Wealth was not associated with total fuelwood collection, probably because there was no fuelwood market Most households collected fuelwood from a private source, namely trees planted on sloping, rain-fed agricultural land (ban), but this accounted for only a small portion of most households' requirement Bari landholding area and livestock holdings typical measures of wealth drove the decision to plant trees on ban land, and the number of trees that were planted. Ban-poor and landless households were consequently the most vulnerable to forest degradation, so the promotion of private fuelwood planting by large ban landholders could reduce pressure on forests and promote greater fuelwood availability for landless households. Support of community forestry emphasizing access for ban-poor and landless families could further decrease fuelwood vulnerability of poorer households. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.