To improve toluene removal efficiency and reduce byproducts, a TiO(2)/gamma-Al(2)O(3)/nickel foam catalyst was combined in and after the non-thermal plasma (NTP), leading to a plasma-driven catalysis (PDC) and plasma-assisted catalysis (PAC) process, respectively. The addition of catalysis could significantly enhance the toluene destruction with an increased CO(2) selectivity and carbon balance while the byproducts, such as O(3) and organic compounds, were dramatically reduced. The PAC exhibited the highest efficiency in toluene destruction due to the formation of more atomic oxygen and hydroxyl radicals from O(3) catalytic decomposition. The pathways of toluene destruction by NTP and plasma-catalysis were proposed according to the identified intermediates. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.